Bible Study Romans: 1: 1-32

 

Commentary of the Book of the Romans

By Dr. Barry L. Jenkins

Text Used: Legacy Standard Bible

Bible Study Romans: 1: 1-32

Introduction to the Book of Romans

Author, Date, and Place of Writing

The Book of Romans was written by the Apostle Paul under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit (2 Tim. 3:16). Paul identifies himself in Romans 1:1 as “a servant of Christ Jesus, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel of God.” His conversion from a zealous persecutor of the church to an apostle of Christ uniquely equipped him to articulate the gospel of grace with clarity and conviction.
Most scholars agree that Romans was written around AD 56–58, during Paul’s third missionary journey, while he was in Corinth, as he prepared to travel to Jerusalem with a collection for the poor among the saints there (Romans 15:25–26; Acts 20:1–3). He longed to visit Rome personally (Romans 1:10–15), and this letter was his Spirit-inspired means of setting forth the gospel before arriving.

Purpose and Occasion

Romans is not simply a personal letter—it is Paul’s fullest exposition of the gospel of Jesus Christ. Written to believers in the capital of the Roman Empire, Paul sought to strengthen their faith, unify Jewish and Gentile Christians, and prepare them as partners in his future missionary work in Spain (Romans 15:24).
From a conservative evangelical perspective, Romans is the most comprehensive biblical treatment of the doctrines of grace—showing God’s sovereignty in salvation, man’s total inability apart from grace, justification by faith alone, union with Christ, and the call to holy living. It is a gospel-centered manifesto for evangelism, discipleship, and church unity.

General Outline

Romans can be broadly outlined as follows:

1. The Gospel’s Righteousness Declared (1:1–17)
   Paul introduces the gospel as the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes.
   
   

2. The Gospel’s Need: Universal Sin (1:18–3:20)
   Both Jew and Gentile are under sin and subject to God’s wrath.
   
   

3. The Gospel’s Provision: Justification by Faith (3:21–5:21)
   God declares sinners righteous through faith in Christ alone, apart from works.
   
   

4. The Gospel’s Power: Sanctification in Christ (6:1–8:39)
   Believers are freed from sin’s dominion and assured of life in the Spirit.
   
   

5. The Gospel’s Defense: God’s Sovereignty in Israel’s Salvation (9:1–11:36)
   God’s electing grace secures His purposes, demonstrating that salvation depends not on human will or effort, but on God who shows mercy (Romans 9:16).
   
   

6. The Gospel’s Application: Christian Living (12:1–15:13)
   In view of God’s mercies, believers are to present their bodies as living sacrifices and walk in love, humility, and holiness.
   
   

7. The Gospel’s Ministry and Mission (15:14–16:27)
   Paul shares his plans, commends fellow workers, and closes with a doxology to God’s eternal wisdom.
   
   

Theological Summary

Romans teaches that the righteousness of God is revealed in the gospel (Romans 1:17). Humanity, fallen in Adam, stands condemned, unable to save itself. Yet God justifies the ungodly through the obedience, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Romans 3:24–26; 5:18–19). Salvation is by grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone—to the glory of God alone.
The letter emphasizes God’s sovereignty in salvation: He foreknows, predestines, calls, justifies, and glorifies His elect (Romans 8:29–30). At the same time, the gospel call is freely and sincerely offered to all (Romans 10:9–13), reflecting the Baptist commitment to evangelism and the universal proclamation of Christ.
Romans also grounds ethics in grace: believers are not saved by works, but they are saved for good works (Romans 12:1–2). Christian obedience flows from gratitude and the transforming power of the Spirit.

Conclusion

The Book of Romans stands as the Magna Carta of the Christian faith. It is both deeply theological and intensely practical, shaping the church’s understanding of salvation and mission. For Reformed Evangelistic Baptists, Romans is the clearest trumpet blast of the doctrines of grace and the greatest summons to gospel proclamation. It calls us to worship God for His sovereign mercy and to labor diligently in making Christ known to the nations.

Text:

The Gospel Exalted

1 Paul, a slave of Christ Jesus, [a]called as an apostle, having been set apart for the gospel of God, 2 which He promised beforehand through His prophets in the holy Scriptures, 3 concerning His Son, who was born of the seed of David according to the flesh, 4 who was designated as the Son of God in power, according to the [b]Spirit of holiness, [c]by the resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, 5 through whom we received grace and apostleship for the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles for the sake of His name, 6 among whom you also are the called of Jesus Christ;

7 to all who are beloved of God in Rome, called as [d]saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

8 First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ [e]for you all, because your faith is being proclaimed throughout the whole world. 9 For God, whom I serve in my spirit in the gospel of His Son, is my witness as to how without ceasing I make mention of you, 10 always in my prayers earnestly asking, if perhaps now at last by the will of God I may succeed in coming to you. 11 For I long to see you so that I may impart some spiritual gift to you, that you may be strengthened; 12 that is, to be mutually encouraged, while among you, by each other’s faith, both yours and mine. 13 I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, that often I have planned to come to you (and have been prevented so far) so that I may have some fruit among you also, even as among the rest of the Gentiles. 14 I am [f]under obligation both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish. 15 In this way, for my part, I am eager to proclaim the gospel to you also who are in Rome.

16 For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. 17 For in it the righteousness of God is revealed [g]from faith to faith; as it is written, “[h]But the righteous will live by faith.”

God’s Wrath on Unrighteousness

18 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men who suppress the truth [i]in unrighteousness, 19 because that which is known about God is evident [j]within them; for God made it evident to them. 20 For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes, both His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse. 21 For even though they knew God, they did not glorify Him as God or give thanks, but they became futile in their thoughts, and their foolish heart was darkened. 22 Professing to be wise, they became fools, 23 and exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for an image in the likeness of corruptible man and of birds and four-footed animals and crawling creatures.

24 Therefore God gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, so that their bodies would be dishonored among them. 25 For they exchanged the truth of God for [k]a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed [l]forever. Amen.

26 For this reason God gave them over to dishonorable passions; for their females exchanged the natural function for that which is [m]unnatural, 27 and in the same way also the males abandoned the natural function of the female and burned in their desire toward one another, males with males committing [n]indecent acts and receiving in [o]their own persons the due penalty of their error.

28 And just as they did not see fit [p]to acknowledge God, God gave them over to an unfit mind, to do those things which are not proper, 29 having been filled with all unrighteousness, wickedness, greed, evil; full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, malice; they are gossips, 30 slanderers, [q]haters of God, violent, arrogant, boastful, inventors of evil, disobedient to parents, 31 without understanding, untrustworthy, unloving, unmerciful; 32 and although they know the righteous requirement of God, that those who practice such things are worthy of death, they not only do the same, but also give hearty approval to those who practice them.

Verse by verse commentary:

Verse 1: “Paul, a slave of Christ Jesus, called as an apostle, having been set apart for the gospel of God,”

In many Bible versions, the Greek word doulos, meaning "slave," is translated as "bondservant," though there's a significant distinction. A servant can have multiple employers, similar to an employee with full-time and part-time jobs. A slave, however, has only one master. The Apostle Paul used the concept of being a "slave" to the Lord Jesus Christ to convey his complete devotion.

The Greek term "apostle" in the New Testament means "one who is sent." This primarily refers to the twelve individuals chosen by Christ as His companions. Paul's divine selection for his ministry is clearly stated in Acts 9:15, 22:14, and 26:16, and supported by Galatians 1:1. His training was directly from Christ, as indicated in Galatians 1:12 and 1:16.

The phrase "gospel of God," which appears about 60 times in its verb and noun forms in this epistle, translates from Greek as "good news." This term was also significant in Roman emperor worship, where a town herald would announce important favorable news about the emperor, such as the birth of a son. However, Paul's "good news" originates not from any emperor, but "of God" Himself. This message proclaims God's forgiveness of sins, liberation from sin's control, and the promise of eternal hope. It is presented not merely as a gracious invitation but also as a divine command to be obeyed. Paul was entirely dedicated to spreading this message.

Verse 2: “which He promised beforehand through His prophets in the holy Scriptures,”

Paul's Jewish detractors accused him of introducing a revolutionary new message unrelated to Judaism. However, the Old Testament is full of prophecies about Christ and the gospel. All Old Testament writers are considered "His prophets," and the "Law and the Prophets" encompass the entire Old Testament. Moses, who wrote the Pentateuch (or "Law"), is also referred to as a prophet in Scripture.

While the rabbinical writings popular in the first century—and often studied more diligently than Scripture itself—may not have taught the gospel of God, the divinely inspired Old Testament certainly did. The prophets clearly spoke of a New Covenant and the Messiah whose sacrifice would make it possible.

Verse 3: “concerning His Son, who was born of the seed of David according to the flesh,”

Jesus's historical existence is affirmed by ancient writers such as Tacitus, Josephus, and Pliny the Younger. He was conceived by the Holy Spirit in a virgin's womb, fulfilling prophecy, and born naturally. The Old Testament foretold that the Messiah would be a descendant of David, a lineage shared by both Mary and Joseph. John underscores the significance of believing in Christ's incarnation as a measure of orthodoxy. Jesus's complete humanity and divinity enable Him to act as humanity's substitute and a compassionate High Priest.

Verse 4: “who was designated as the Son of God in power, according to the Spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord,”

“Designated” is the Greek word for "horizon" which means "to distinguish." Just as the horizon clearly separates earth and sky, the resurrection of Jesus Christ unequivocally distinguishes Him from all other humans, offering undeniable proof of His divine sonship. The title "Son of God," appearing almost 30 times in the Gospels, asserts the Lord  Jesus Christ's essential identity with God. The resurrection definitively declared Jesus' Deity—God's own expression in human form. While He was eternally the Son in anticipation of His incarnation, His entry into the world through incarnation publicly proclaimed Him as the Son of God, at which point He assumed a role of submission to the Father. Regarding the "Spirit of holiness": In His incarnation, Christ willingly chose to fulfill the Father's will exclusively through the guidance, operation, and power of the Holy Spirit. His "resurrection from the dead"—His triumph over death—stands as the ultimate demonstration and most conclusive evidence that He is God the Son.

Verse 5: “through whom we received grace and apostleship for the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles for the sake of His name,”

“Grace and apostleship are very important terms. God’s method of salvation is "grace," without which none could be saved. While "apostleship" technically referred to Paul and other apostles, every believer is an "apostolē," a "sent one." Therefore, every believer should be a witness, sent forth with a message. The "obedience of faith" signifies both the obedience that stems from faith and the understanding that faith necessitates obedient submission to God's calling. Faith will produce works, and part of those works is becoming Christlike everyday until we depart for eternity.

Verse 6: “among whom you also are the called of Jesus Christ;”

In the New Testament Epistles, God's "call" consistently denotes His effective summons of chosen individuals to salvation, rather than a general call for all to believe.

Verse 7: “ to all who are beloved of God in Rome, called as saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.”

Although the exact origins of the Roman church are unknown, visitors from Rome were very likely present when the gospel was preached on the day of Pentecost. Rome served as the empire's capital. The greeting's use of "beloved of God" foreshadows the letter's central themes, which extensively explore God's calling, love, grace, and peace.

Verse 8” “First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all, because your faith is being proclaimed throughout the whole world.”

Paul consistently expressed gratitude for God's grace at work in others. The phrase "being proclaimed throughout the whole world" indicates that news of Christians in the capital city had spread across the entire Roman Empire.

Verse 9: “For God, whom I serve in my spirit in the gospel of His Son, is my witness as to how without ceasing I make mention of you,”

Paul's continuous and faithful prayer life reflected his complete dedication to service and his desire for spiritual effectiveness. He prayed in complete surrender to God's will. Just like the Lord Jesus Christ, his submission to the will of God was very important in his prayers.

Verse 10: “always in my prayers earnestly asking, if perhaps now at last by the will of God I may succeed in coming to you.”

God meticulously guided Paul's life and ministry, demonstrating His ultimate control. From his conversion to his martyrdom, every step, including trials, served a divine purpose: spiritual good and Gospel advancement. Hardships like shipwrecks and imprisonment, seemingly random, provided unique opportunities to spread the Gospel and write influential epistles. His divinely arranged partnerships and even opposition furthered God's plan. Paul's life attests that God's will is executed in both triumph and adversity, bringing peace and confidence, as Romans 8:28 states.

Verse 11: “For I long to see you so that I may impart some spiritual gift to you, that you may be strengthened;”

In Romans, the Greek word "charisma," translated as "gift," denotes a "gift of grace" and refers to a spiritual empowerment from the Spirit of God. Paul likely uses the term to describe three things: Christ, general divine blessings, and specific spiritual gifts given to body members for the good of the whole.

Verse 12: “that is, to be mutually encouraged, while among you, by each other’s faith, both yours and mine.”

Ministry is not a solo endeavor but a shared responsibility, a combined effort designed to mutually strengthen every member of the body of Christ. One purpose is to foster growth, provide support, and encourage spiritual development across the entire community of believers. This collaborative approach ensures that each individual, regardless of their role or gifting, contributes to and benefits from the collective ministry, ultimately leading to the believing community being stronger and more effective in sharing the Gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ.

Verse 13: “I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, that often I have planned to come to you (and have been prevented so far) so that I may have some fruit among you also, even as among the rest of the Gentiles.”

He had been prevented from visiting them, despite his strong desire to do so. Although these instances are unrecorded, they likely pertained to his other ministerial obligations. Many of these individuals were his converts, having been led to Christ by him during encounters across the Roman Empire. His wish to "have fruit among you" likely refers not to evangelism, but to the manifestation of the Spirit's fruit in the lives of believers.

Verse 14: “ I am under obligation both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish.”

The classical Greek worldview categorized humanity into two groups: "Greeks" and "Barbarians." The Greeks represented culture, education, and civilization, while "barbarians" encompassed those considered pagan or heathen. Although a false dichotomy, this division was universally understood by Romans and effectively encompassed all of mankind.

Paul declared, "I am under obligation both to the Greeks, and to the Barbarians." This indebtedness did not stem from a commercial obligation, but rather from a profound personal encounter with the Lord Jesus Christ. The abundant grace of God bestowed upon him placed him in debt to every individual, rendering him beholden to a lost world. Many Christians assert, "I pay my honest debts." However, true repayment of this debt remains unfulfilled until every person has received the gospel of Jesus Christ. "I am under obligation," was a compelling reason for his desire to visit Rome.

Verse 15: “In this way, for my part, I am eager to proclaim the gospel to you also who are in Rome.”

Paul states his readiness to fulfill his obligation, indicating his commitment to "pay" his obligation.

Verse 16: “For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek.”

Paul states, “I am not ashamed of the gospel,” acknowledging his debt, readiness, and submission. He wasn't ashamed to bring this message, despite its lack of grand temples, because "it is the power of God" referencing humanity's total depravity to sin and Satan, resulting in spiritual weakness and inability, necessitates the regenerating, life-changing power of the gospel Word through the Holy Spirit. This salvation is for everyone, "to the Jew first, and also to the Greek," universally offered to "every one that believeth" through personal faith. While the gospel chronologically went to Jews first, Paul ultimately turned to the Gentiles when Jews rejected it, spreading the message from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth.

Verse 17: “For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, ‘But the righteous will live by faith.’”

"A righteousness from God" is a literal translation, not "the righteousness of God." This righteousness is from God, not man's, as human righteousness is deemed "filthy rags" by God (Isaiah 64:6). Paul refers to the imputed righteousness of Christ, where God places a lost sinner in Christ, accepting them based on Christ's actions. This righteousness is obtained only by faith; it cannot be earned or bought.

The Greek word for "righteousness" is dikaiosune, appearing 92 times in the New Testament and 36 times in Romans. "A righteousness from God" appears eight times in Romans. The root word dike means "right," the antonym of sin, and is the origin of "justice" and "justify." This righteousness is both demanded and provided by God.

"From faith to faith" means out of faith into faith: God saves by faith, and one lives and dies by faith, ultimately reaching heaven by faith. This is illustrated by a personal anecdote of being born physically into air and breathing from then on, and being "born again" spiritually by faith, living by faith ever since.

"As it is written" refers to Habakkuk 2:4, "...the righteous will live by faith." This verse is quoted in Romans, Galatians, and Hebrews.

"The righteous shall live by faith"—justification by faith means a sinner trusting Christ is not only pardoned but also stands complete before God. This involves the subtraction of sin and addition of righteousness. Christ "was delivered for our offences, and was raised again for our justification"  so we could stand complete in Him.

God's act of justification by faith is not arbitrary; He does not disregard His holiness or justice. Since God saves by grace, there is no human merit. Salvation is solely based on trusting the Lord Jesus Christ. God would be impugning His own justice if the penalty for sin were not paid. Christ died to create a way, and He is the way to heaven. Salvation is 100% of the Lord because Christ paid the penalty for our sin.

Verse 18: “For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men who suppress the truth in unrighteousness,”

To understand salvation, one must grasp the severity of sin, which invites God's holy wrath, not merely His punishment. This wrath is continuously revealed in both the Old and New Testaments and is evident in contemporary society as God's consistent displeasure with evil. God's mercy is possible because Christ died, not because He is lenient; the gospel allows for the acceptance of sinners. Ultimately, individuals face either God's righteousness or His wrath, a truth observable everywhere. Sin has real consequences, as seen in the prevalence of diseases and in repeated instances of divine judgment throughout history, with a final judgment yet to come. "Ungodliness" is against God, denying His character, a state of the soul. "Unrighteousness" is against humanity, denying God's rule and seen in actions like drunk driving or dishonest business dealings. God detests and will judge both. His wrath is directed at those who suppress the truth through unrighteousness.

Verse 19: “because that which is known about God is evident within them; for God made it evident to them.”

God has instilled evidence of His existence in humanity through reason and moral law.

Verse 20: “ For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes, both His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that they are without excuse.”

The universe reveals God's nature and power, evident since creation. Creation is a clear revelation, not a "dim light of nature." Scriptures affirm this, highlighting the heavens as God's handiwork. God's eternal power and deity are demonstrated through creation and sustenance, providing rain and fruitful seasons. As God's offspring, we shouldn't conceive of Him as man-made idols. Atheism is illogical, as denying God's existence is considered insane. Given this clear revelation through creation, humanity is "without excuse" for their sin, which stems from willful rebellion, not ignorance. A truly seeking heart will find the truth of God’s existence.

Verse 21: “For even though they knew God, they did not glorify Him as God or give thanks, but they became futile in their thoughts, and their foolish heart was darkened.”

Paul emphasizes that humankind can genuinely know God through general revelation. Humanity's sin stems from an individual refusal to acknowledge this known truth. Despite knowing God, people decline to honor or thank Him, leading to darkened minds and hearts. This rejection of God ultimately frustrates all intellectual endeavors.

Verse 22: “Professing to be wise, they became fools,”

Mankind invents and accepts personal philosophies regarding God, the cosmos, and humanity, thereby rationalizing sin and demonstrating complete foolishness. Phrases like “The Universe” or “Mother Nature” are used because neither have a Holiness that condemns sin. They are safe. The True God is fierce in His wrath against sin.

Verse 23: “and exchanged the glory of the incorruptible God for an image in the likeness of corruptible man and of birds and four-footed animals and crawling creatures.”

When intellect usurps its proper place before God, a reversal of values occurs: the worship due to God is bartered for devotion to idols crafted by human hands and mirroring human likeness. The inherent human impulse to worship becomes distorted, misplaced onto an unworthy object.

Verse 24: “Therefore God gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, so that their bodies would be dishonored among them.”

Divine restraints on sinful actions and their consequences are removed during judgment. We saw this in the 1960s in the USA with the call to "free love.” Young people engaged in sexual promiscuity and had no regard to the sins of the flesh. No longer did people wait to get married to have sex. Sex is beautiful and sanctioned in a marriage between one man and one woman. The FDA approved the first birth control pill in the USA on May 9, 1960. With the fear of pregnancy removed, and God removing Divine restraints, people lived out this verse fulfilling their sexual lusts.

Verse 25: “For they exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.”

The "lie" constituted a rejection of God's existence and His rightful claim to obedience and glory. Turning away from God and towards Satan, the architect of deceit and the originator of idolatry, resulted in profound moral decline. This idolatry was the catalyst for their descent into the deepest levels of depravity.

Verse 26: “For this reason God gave them over to dishonorable passions; for their females exchanged the natural function for that which is unnatural,”

When people abandon their inherent desire to worship God, other natural instincts can become corrupted. This can lead to a state where God removes His divine restraints, allowing individuals to act on their sinful desires. For example, it is considered unnatural for a woman to be physically attracted to another woman.

Verse 27: “and in the same way also the males abandoned the natural function of the female and burned in their desire toward one another, males with males committing indecent acts and receiving in their own persons the due penalty of their error.”

Paul continues his argument by addressing male homosexuality, describing "indecent acts" which are literally "shameless deeds." Scripture consistently portrays all homosexual actions in this negative light (Leviticus 18:22; 21:13). This leads to several consequences: being overcome by lust, the breakdown of what is truly "natural" (v. 26), and enslavement to uncontrollable passions (v. 27). While homosexuality began being decriminalized in the 1960s, it was not until the Supreme Court in 2003 in the case of Lawrence vs Texas, invalidated all laws prohibiting homosexuality that effectively legalized homosexuality in the USA. 

Verse 28: “And just as they did not see fit to acknowledge God, God gave them over to an unfit mind, to do those things which are not proper,”

We see the progression from heterosexual sin (v. 24), to homosexual sin (vs, 26, 27) and now the “unfit mind” which is literally a “reprobate mind.” This is seen today in the transgender movement. People think that they are a different gender than their sex. One has to lose all sense of reasoning to believe such nonsense. This is an offense against a Holy God and will not go unpunished. It is a lie created by the master of lies, Satan himself.  Sin brings a disdain for true values, and risks abandonment by God to a spirit of licentiousness, and that is what we see today.

Verse 29: “having been filled with all unrighteousness, wickedness, greed, evil; full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, malice; they are gossips,”

This section details the progression of humanity's sinfulness, illustrating the "wrath of abandonment" when God forsakes man. Paul outlines its core nature (vv. 24, 25), its manifestation (vv. 26, 27), and its final result, i.e. a loss of one’s mind to determine right from wrong (vv. 28–32). How much longer will God tolerate and be patient with us? He has judged great nations in the past who have gone in this direction.

Verse 30: “slanderers, haters of God, violent, arrogant, boastful, inventors of evil, disobedient to parents,”

 No fewer than twenty-three several sorts of sins and sinners are here specified, Rom. 1:29-31. When people are abandoned to their own lusts, their sins will manifest in numerous ways. “Haters of God” is literally “hateful to God.” People that love death hate God (Proverbs 8: 36). Just listen to those that hate God. They love abortion, hate anything good and moral. It is a true statement that things that used to be right are now wrong and things that were wrong are now right. Satan the originator of pride will lead his followers to be arrogant, purveyors of all kinds of evil and finally rebelling against parental authority. 

Verse 31: “without understanding, untrustworthy, unloving, unmerciful;”

The path of destruction ends with no understanding of the things of God, not trusting in God’s Word which results in their being untrustworthy, a lack of meaningful love their settling for a cheap imitation found in sexual acts following their lust, and having rejected the mercy of God they give no mercy to others.

Verse 32: “and although they know the righteous requirement of God, that those who practice such things are worthy of death, they not only do the same, but also give hearty approval to those who practice them.”

Paul understands the knowledge of divine judgment to be evidence of humanity's guilt and enslavement to sin. This knowledge, rather than restraining, incites further rebellion, even encouraging others to sin. This passage affirms that God's revelation through nature conveys His moral character and instills a sense of moral obligation in humanity.